“There is nothing as practical as a good theory” was Kurt Lewin’s (1943) way of asserting the value of theory in guiding research that addresses broad social problems. But psychological theory also can be useful in individual lives. Even when it is provisional and incomplete, it can promote self-understanding and self-improvement at the same time that it facilitates learning about a research area.

 

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Cognitive Appraisal

Emotion theory provides a good illustration. Emotions have been understood in terms of the roles of bodily responses, facial expressions, and situational cues in triggering an emotion, determining which emotion it will be, and influencing its intensity and likely consequences. While all these factors may play a role, cognitive appraisal theories may offer the most practical starting point for self-analysis.

From Stress Theory to Emotion Theory

Richard Lazarus (1993) emphasized cognitive appraisal initially in his influential theory of psychological stress and later in one of the first appraisal theories of human emotion. In his stress theory, appraisal refers to a cognitive-evaluative process in which we detect a threat, harm/loss, or challenge. Threat is the anticipation of possible physical or psychological harm or loss. Harm and loss refer to damage that has already occurred, and a challenge is the prospect of possible harm or loss accompanied by the potential for some benefit or gain. According to this theory, these three appraisals initiate psychological stress.

Appraisal of threat, harm/loss, or challenge is accompanied by evaluation of possible coping responses. Coping entails efforts to manage the perceived situation and its subjective impact, referred to as problem- and emotion-focused coping, respectively. It takes the form of cognitive and/or behavioral activity and has numerous different manifestations depending on the nature of the stressor.

Of many developments in psychological stress theory since Lazarus offered this formulation, one of the most interesting was when Lazarus essentially told us to “Forget what I said about psychological stress. The way forward is to focus on human emotions.” He then described how cognitive appraisal could form the basis for a theory of emotion.

Core Relational Themes, Patterns of Appraisal, and Specific Emotions

Lazarus posited qualitatively distinct patterns of cognitive appraisal to account for the initiation of emotions and for the particular emotion that occurs. Each is characterized by a core theme that describes the person's overall perception of their relationship with the initiating situation and of specific appraisal components. The latter may be seen (figuratively) as the mind’s answers to a series of questions about ongoing, recalled, anticipated, or imagined events.

One appraisal element addresses goal relevance. If the situation favors one’s goals, a positive emotion will ensue; if it is an impediment to goal attainment, there is a negative emotion. If it is seen as having no implications for important goals, there is no emotional response.

In the case of negative emotion, a second element of appraisal is an assessment of the potential for problem- and emotion-focused coping. What can I do about the situation and its impact on my goals? What can I do about how it will make me feel?

A third element of appraisal is an assessment of responsibility or blame. Have I caused or allowed this to happen? Or is someone or something else responsible?

For example, Lazarus suggested that the core relational theme that runs through the cognitive appraisal pattern responsible for happiness is progress toward goal attainment, whereas for sadness, it is the experience of irrevocable loss.

 

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For fright (or fear), the theme involves concrete, immediate physical danger, whereas for anxiety, there is uncertainty about possible danger. Themes associated with other emotions may be found in Lazarus (1993) and in the writings of other appraisal theorists (see Moors, 2022).

In recalling emotional episodes, whether as we mentally recount the events of the day just before sleep, while journaling, or when sharing our experiences with others, we can use these themes as a guide. This may be particularly useful for dealing with negative emotions: What loss did I experience that caused my sadness? Is it truly irrevocable? Or is there a way to restore or substitute whatever it is that I feel I no longer have?

The specific elements of appraisal patterns allow us to drill down to further our understanding of emotions. For example, one theme that may underlie anger is “a demeaning offense against me or mine.” Feeling anger, we may, therefore, ask ourselves about the nature of the offense, its source, whether or not the offensive person or situation reflected intention, and what can be done to cope directly with its occurrence and with our angry feelings.

Of course, there are limits to such self-analysis, so the results should be regarded as tentative, perhaps more as hypotheses than as conclusions. And cognitive appraisal theory is not the final word in the scientific understanding of emotion. For example, if you engage in this kind of reflection, it is likely that you will find that you had thoughts about situations in the past that resembled your most recent emotional experiences, both with regard to the triggering circumstances and the way you felt about it. If you do, you will have anticipated the work of Lisa Feldman Barrett (2017), who has emphasized the role of memory as a contributing factor in emotion beyond the effects of appraisal of the immediate situation.

 

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Reflecting on Our Emotions

Nonetheless, whatever they are in reality, emotional episodes can be described by the experiencing individual, in part, with regard to the core themes and cognitive appraisals that at least appear to initiate them and distinguish one from another. This reflective process may also facilitate discussions between partners, family members, and children and adolescents, promoting a greater understanding of emotional conflicts, issues, and problems. And, if you choose to delve more deeply into emotion theory, you may come to prefer one account of the cognitive processes that lead to emotions over the others.