The most recent significant escalation in the conflict between Israel and Hamas began with a surprise, large-scale attack launched by Hamas and other Palestinian militant groups from the Gaza Strip into Israel on October 7, 2023.

How the Escalation Began

The assault, which coincided with the Jewish holiday of Shemini Atzeret, was unprecedented in its scope and lethality, catching Israeli military and intelligence forces off-guard.

• The October 7 Attack: The multi-front offensive began with a massive barrage of rockets fired toward Israeli cities, which reportedly overwhelmed the Iron Dome defense system. Concurrently, an estimated 1,500 militants breached the heavily fortified Gaza border in dozens of locations by land, sea, and air (using motorized paragliders). They targeted Israeli military bases and civilian communities in southern Israel, including kibbutzim and an outdoor music festival near Re'im. The attack resulted in the deaths of approximately 1,200 Israelis and foreign nationals, mostly civilians, and the seizure of around 251 hostages, who were taken back into the Gaza Strip.

• Israel’s Response and Declaration of War: In response to the massacre and the hostage-taking, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announced that Israel was "at war." The Israeli cabinet formally declared war the following day, a step not taken since the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Israel launched a massive aerial bombardment campaign against Hamas targets in Gaza, mobilizing hundreds of thousands of reserve troops. On October 9, Israel's Defense Minister ordered a "complete siege" of the Gaza Strip, cutting off the supply of electricity, food, water, and fuel to the territory.

• Initial Escalation Events: The period immediately following the initial attack was marked by rapid and severe Israeli military action, escalating the crisis:

  • Aerial Bombardment: Intense and continuous airstrikes targeted Gaza, which Israel stated were aimed at destroying Hamas's military capabilities and infrastructure.

  • Evacuation Orders: On October 13, the Israeli military ordered the total evacuation of over one million Palestinian civilians in northern Gaza to the south, ahead of a planned ground invasion, compounding the humanitarian crisis and mass displacement within the densely populated enclave.

  • Ground Invasion: On October 27, Israel expanded its attacks to a "new phase" by sending ground forces into the Gaza Strip, commencing a full-scale invasion with the stated objectives of destroying Hamas and freeing the hostages.

Key Events Leading to Calls for a Cease-Fire

The increasing scale of the humanitarian catastrophe in Gaza, the rising number of civilian casualties, and the fate of the hostages became the primary drivers for relentless international and domestic calls for a cease-fire or humanitarian pause.

• Growing Humanitarian Crisis and Civilian Casualties:

  • The complete siege and the relentless bombardment by Israeli forces quickly led to dire conditions for the more than two million Palestinian residents of Gaza. Essential services collapsed, hospitals were overwhelmed or damaged, and shortages of food, water, medicine, and fuel reached catastrophic levels.

  • Reports from the Hamas-run Gaza Health Ministry indicated a rapidly rising death toll, with a significant proportion being women and children, fueling global outrage and prompting humanitarian organizations and UN agencies to urgently call for a cessation of hostilities to allow aid in and protect civilians. The sheer magnitude of civilian suffering and the destruction of infrastructure created immense pressure on world leaders.

• The Hostage Crisis and Domestic Pressure on Israel:

  • The 251 hostages taken by Hamas became a central focus, both for Israeli society and international diplomacy. Families of the hostages organized powerful protests and held vigils, pressuring the Israeli government to prioritize the captives' safe return, even if it meant a temporary halt to the fighting.

  • The presence of hostages provided a concrete, immediate mechanism for a pause in fighting, tying the military objectives to a humanitarian exchange.

• International Diplomacy and UN Action:

  • Failed Resolutions: In the initial weeks, attempts at the United Nations Security Council to pass resolutions calling for a cease-fire or humanitarian pause were frequently vetoed, primarily by the United States, which argued that such resolutions failed to recognize Israel's right to self-defense or did not explicitly condemn Hamas. However, these repeated attempts highlighted the growing global demand for a stop to the fighting.

  • Successful Resolution for Pauses: In November 2023, the UN Security Council adopted a resolution that called for "urgent and extended humanitarian pauses and corridors," a watered-down measure that nonetheless acknowledged the severity of the crisis and the need for a break in the conflict.

  • International Court of Justice (ICJ) Action: In early 2024, the ICJ delivered a provisional ruling on a case alleging genocide, finding it "plausible" that Israel had committed acts of genocide in Gaza and ordering Israel to take steps to prevent such acts and allow basic services and aid into the territory. While the court did not order a cease-fire, its ruling increased international legal and political pressure on Israel.

• The November 2023 Truce:

  • Intense diplomatic efforts, primarily brokered by Qatar, Egypt, and the United States, eventually led to a breakthrough. On November 24, 2023, a temporary seven-day truce was agreed upon, which included an exchange of 110 Israeli hostages for 240 Palestinian prisoners held in Israeli jails. Crucially, this pause also allowed for a significant surge in humanitarian aid into Gaza, demonstrating the viability and necessity of a halt in hostilities. Although fighting resumed after the truce concluded, it set a precedent for future negotiations.

• Resumption of Hostilities and Subsequent Escalation:

  • Following the November truce, intense fighting resumed and continued for many months. The Israeli military extended its operations into southern Gaza, including the city of Khan Yunis, and later the city of Rafah on the Egyptian border, where over a million displaced Palestinians had sought shelter.

  • The high casualty rates, the threat of famine, and the widespread destruction led to a sustained chorus of international demands for a permanent cease-fire, with many nations and international organizations joining the call.

In summary, the most recent escalation began with the shock of the October 7, 2023, Hamas-led attack and was immediately followed by Israel's massive retaliatory war in Gaza. Calls for a cease-fire gained momentum due to the catastrophic humanitarian crisis resulting from the siege and intensive bombardment, the high civilian death toll, and the need to secure the release of the remaining hostages held by Hamas, with mediation efforts aiming to secure a phased, more comprehensive end to the war.