Jerusalem: The Unbroken Jewish Presence Through Exile and Empire

Few cities on earth embody the continuity of faith, memory, and identity as powerfully as Jerusalem. For more than three millennia, Jews have revered it not merely as a geographical location but as the center of their spiritual universe.

From King David’s establishment of Jerusalem as Israel’s capital to the prayers whispered by exiles in Babylon, Spain, Poland, Yemen, and Ethiopia—Jerusalem remained the direction of their hearts and the compass of their prayers.

Even during periods when foreign empires ruled and Jewish populations were scattered, Jews continuously lived, prayed, and returned to Jerusalem.

The evidence—biblical, archaeological, historical, and cultural—reveals an unbroken bond between the Jewish people and their eternal city.

1. Biblical Foundations: Jerusalem as the Heart of Covenant and Worship

Jerusalem’s centrality begins in the Hebrew Bible, where it is first mentioned as Salem, ruled by Melchizedek, the “priest of the Most High God” (Genesis 14:18). Later, King David conquered the city around 1000 BCE and made it Israel’s capital (2 Samuel 5:6–9). His son Solomon built the First Temple there (1 Kings 6–8), transforming Jerusalem into the heart of Jewish worship and the visible sign of God’s covenant with Israel.

The Book of Psalms—many written by David—abounds with love for the city:

“If I forget you, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget its skill.”
— Psalm 137:5

This verse was composed during the Babylonian Exile (6th century BCE), showing that even in foreign lands, Jewish identity and memory were tied to Jerusalem. The same psalm mentions captives weeping “by the rivers of Babylon,” refusing to sing songs of Zion in a strange land—symbolizing spiritual exile, not just physical displacement.

Throughout subsequent books—Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and Zechariah—Jerusalem remains the focal point of divine promise. Prophets envisioned its restoration and the return of God’s people. These scriptures sustained Jews through centuries of conquest and exile.

2. Post-Exilic and Second Temple Period: The Rebuilding of Jerusalem

After the Babylonian exile, under the Persian ruler Cyrus the Great, Jews were permitted to return and rebuild the Temple (Ezra 1:1–4). This event, described in Ezra and Nehemiah, marked the first organized return of exiles to Jerusalem. By the 5th century BCE, Jerusalem again had functioning walls, a Temple, and a Jewish governing structure under the priestly leadership of Ezra and Nehemiah.

Even after the Greek (Hellenistic) and Roman conquests, Jewish religious, political, and social life revolved around Jerusalem. Pilgrims came annually for the three major festivals—Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot—as commanded in the Torah. The Second Temple, renovated by King Herod in the 1st century BCE, became one of the most magnificent sanctuaries in the ancient world.

3. The Roman Destruction and Enduring Presence (70 CE onward)

In 70 CE, the Roman legions led by Titus destroyed the Second Temple after a Jewish revolt. This catastrophe did not end Jewish presence in the city. Historical sources like Josephus (The Jewish War) and later Roman historians such as Tacitus describe the destruction—but not total expulsion.

Archaeological evidence—including inscriptions, coins, and remnants of mikva’ot (ritual baths)—show Jews continued living in and around Jerusalem after 70 CE. The Western Wall, a surviving retaining wall of the Temple Mount, became the holiest accessible site in Judaism. Pilgrims and residents prayed there even during Roman rule.

After the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135 CE), Emperor Hadrian renamed Jerusalem Aelia Capitolina and banned Jews from entering. Yet this ban was not absolute nor permanent. Records indicate Jewish pilgrims continued to visit the Mount of Olives and nearby villages to mourn and pray. By the 4th century, under the Byzantines, small Jewish communities reappeared in surrounding areas, including Mount Scopus and Silwan.

4. Byzantine and Early Islamic Eras: Pilgrimage and Persistence

The Byzantine Empire (324–638 CE) imposed harsh restrictions on Jews, including a ban on residence within Jerusalem’s walls. Still, sources such as the Byzantine historian Procopius and the Piacenza Pilgrim (6th century CE) mention Jews living in nearby towns and entering the city during special occasions—particularly on Tisha B’Av, the annual day of mourning for the Temple’s destruction.

When the Muslim Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab conquered Jerusalem in 638 CE, Jewish chroniclers record that he invited Jews back to live in the city, ending centuries of exclusion. Jewish sources describe 70 families from Tiberias relocating to Jerusalem. The early Islamic period was thus a time of modest revival.

Documents from the Cairo Geniza (10th–11th centuries) confirm Jewish communal life in Jerusalem, mentioning rabbis, merchants, and scholars. Jews prayed at the Western Wall, the Mount of Olives, and the Tomb of the Prophets—customs that continue to this day.

5. Crusader Devastation and Return (1099–1291 CE)

The Crusader conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 was devastating. Contemporary Christian and Jewish chronicles report the massacre of all Jewish inhabitants, many burned alive in synagogues. For decades, Jews were banned from entering the city.

However, following Saladin’s recapture in 1187, Jews were again permitted to resettle. Historical documents from Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish traveler in the 12th century, mention Jews living in Jerusalem during Saladin’s reign. These communities rebuilt synagogues, and Jews from Morocco, Egypt, and Europe began visiting regularly.

By the 13th century, under Ayyubid and early Mamluk rule, Jews maintained a small but continuous presence, often centered around the area of Mount Zion. Despite poverty and intermittent persecution, the community never disappeared.

6. The Ottoman Period: Revival and Expansion (1517–1917 CE)

When the Ottoman Empire took control of Jerusalem in 1517, Jews experienced greater stability. The 16th century witnessed significant Jewish immigration, particularly after the Spanish Expulsion of 1492, when Sephardic Jews sought refuge in the Ottoman lands. Some families settled in Jerusalem, contributing to a renaissance of Jewish life.

Rabbi Moshe ben Yosef di Trani and others established schools and synagogues. By the 1700s, Jewish quarters were expanding despite recurring plagues and earthquakes. Visitors like Rabbi Chaim Yosef David Azulai (the Chida) and Christian travelers recorded thriving Jewish communities engaged in Torah study and trade.

By the 19th century, the Jewish population of Jerusalem surpassed that of Muslims and Christians, according to Ottoman census data and accounts by European consuls. In 1844, Jews constituted about half of the city’s population; by 1870, they were the majority.
The community built new neighborhoods outside the Old City—Mishkenot Sha’ananim, Mea Shearim, and Nachlaot—laying the foundation for modern Jerusalem.

Throughout this period, Jews from around the world—Yemenite, Kurdish, Georgian, Ashkenazi, and Sephardic—made pilgrimage or aliyah to Jerusalem. The dream of return never ceased to inspire migration.

7. The British Mandate and Modern Zionist Revival (1917–1948)

The Balfour Declaration (1917) and subsequent League of Nations Mandate (1922) recognized the Jewish right to reconstitute a homeland. Under British administration, Jerusalem became the focal point of Jewish religious, cultural, and political activity. Institutions like the Hebrew University (1925) and the Jewish Agency were established there.

Even amid tensions and Arab riots (notably in 1920, 1929, and 1936), Jewish life in Jerusalem continued. New neighborhoods, schools, and synagogues arose. The Western Wall once again became a site of daily worship and national gatherings, despite British restrictions on Jewish prayer.

By 1948, when the State of Israel was declared, Jews had maintained an unbroken presence in Jerusalem for over 3,000 years—through exile, return, and perseverance.

8. The Cultural and Spiritual Continuity: Jerusalem in Jewish Life Everywhere

Even when distant from Jerusalem, Jews never detached from it spiritually.

• Prayer: Jews around the world face Jerusalem during prayer. The Amidah prayer, recited thrice daily, includes the plea: “Return in mercy to Jerusalem, Your city.”

• Rituals: Every Passover Seder ends with the declaration: “Next year in Jerusalem!”

• Weddings: At Jewish weddings, the groom breaks a glass to remember the Temple’s destruction, linking every joy to the hope of Jerusalem’s restoration.

• Psalms and Liturgy: Countless prayers and songs mourn or celebrate Zion, reinforcing spiritual unity across continents and centuries.

These traditions ensured that Jerusalem was not merely remembered—it was lived daily in Jewish consciousness.

9. Archaeological and Historical Corroboration

Archaeological findings further confirm continuous Jewish attachment:

• Hebrew inscriptions and coins from every major era—from the Hasmoneans to the Bar Kokhba revolt—have been found in Jerusalem.

• Synagogue remains from the early Islamic and Crusader periods show ongoing community life.

• Pilgrim records from the Geniza documents, Benjamin of Tudela, and Rabbi Ovadiah of Bartenura provide firsthand evidence of Jewish residence and worship in the city across centuries.

• The Western Wall itself—preserved through Roman, Byzantine, Islamic, and Ottoman eras—remains the most enduring testimony of Jewish continuity in Jerusalem.

The City That Never Let Go

Jerusalem is not a relic of Jewish memory—it is its living heart. Across 3,000 years of exile, conquest, and return, Jews continuously lived, prayed, and longed for the city. Every empire that ruled over Jerusalem faded, yet the Jewish presence persisted—sometimes small, sometimes flourishing, but never extinguished.

From David’s harp to the silent tears of exiles, from the mystics of Safed to the pioneers of modern Israel, Jerusalem has always been the axis of Jewish existence. The evidence—biblical, archaeological, and historical—speaks with one voice: the Jewish connection to Jerusalem has never been broken.