The Question of Africa’s Divided Unity-

Tribal divisions across Africa are both an old inheritance and a new invention — an uneasy marriage between history and manipulation.

While colonialism laid the foundation for ethnic fragmentation by drawing arbitrary borders and privileging some groups over others, it is Africa’s postcolonial elites who have kept those divisions alive, often turning them into instruments of political survival.

The question, therefore, is not whether tribal divisions come from colonial legacies or elite manipulation — both forces are deeply intertwined.

The colonial state created the framework, and the postcolonial elite mastered its use. To understand how, one must trace the journey of tribal identity from precolonial harmony through colonial distortion to modern-day exploitation.

1. Before the Colonizers: Ethnicity as Identity, Not Division

Before European conquest, Africa’s diverse ethnic groups were not “tribes” in the colonial sense but living societies with intricate systems of governance, trade, and coexistence. Ethnic identity was flexible and fluid. Boundaries between groups were often porous — people intermarried, traded, and migrated freely. Conflict existed, but it was balanced by alliances, kinship, and customary law.

For example, the Yoruba city-states maintained political autonomy but shared language and cultural heritage. The Hausa city-states in northern Nigeria engaged in commerce with the Kanuri, Tuareg, and Fulani. Among the Igbo, decentralized communities cooperated through kinship networks rather than rigid ethnic lines. Ethnicity, then, was a cultural identity — not a political weapon.

This equilibrium changed dramatically with the arrival of colonial powers. The Europeans’ obsession with classification — mapping, categorizing, and ranking — turned flexible identities into fixed “tribes,” setting the stage for enduring division.

2. The Colonial Blueprint: Divide, Rule, and Exploit

The colonial project in Africa was less about civilization and more about control. To administer vast territories cheaply, colonial rulers relied on a strategy of divide and rule — a deliberate system of fostering competition and suspicion among ethnic groups.

Colonial administrators formalized tribal identities through censuses, administrative boundaries, and indirect rule. They appointed local chiefs to govern on their behalf, often creating “traditional rulers” where none had existed. The British in Nigeria, for instance, imposed indirect rule through existing emirates in the North but invented new chieftaincies in the acephalous (non-centralized) South.

This policy created artificial hierarchies. Some ethnic groups, such as the Baganda in Uganda or the Tutsi in Rwanda, were favored with administrative privileges and education. Others, like the Hutu or smaller ethnic minorities, were marginalized. Over time, these privileges translated into resentment, fear, and a perception of inequality.

The colonial state also institutionalized ethnic geography. The creation of ethnic “homelands” or “reserves” — as seen in South Africa, Kenya, and Zambia — restricted mobility and reinforced the notion of separate communities competing for limited resources. When independence approached, these divisions were so deep that nationalism had to be built on fragile coalitions rather than genuine unity.

3. Independence and the Inheritance of Division

At independence, African leaders inherited states that were politically united on paper but socially divided in practice. The borders drawn in Europe had lumped together hundreds of groups that had never shared governance. Leaders like Kwame Nkrumah and Julius Nyerere dreamed of transcending tribalism through pan-Africanism and socialism, yet their visions clashed with colonial legacies that had entrenched ethnic consciousness.

In Nigeria, the First Republic (1960–1966) saw the emergence of ethnic political parties: the Northern People’s Congress (NPC) for the Hausa-Fulani, the Action Group (AG) for the Yoruba, and the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) for the Igbo. Elections became contests between tribes rather than ideological debates.

Across the continent, similar patterns emerged. Kenya’s Kenya African National Union (KANU) became dominated by the Kikuyu and Luo, while smaller groups formed rival parties. In Congo (now DRC), Patrice Lumumba’s nationalist dream was destroyed by regional and ethnic factions exploited by both local elites and foreign powers.

The colonial legacy of ethnic fragmentation, therefore, did not disappear with independence — it was simply inherited, codified, and repurposed by the new rulers.

4. Elite Manipulation: Turning Division into a Political Weapon

Once in power, Africa’s political elites quickly realized that ethnic identity was not a weakness to overcome, but a tool to exploit. In multi-ethnic societies where access to the state equals access to wealth, leaders began to use ethnic loyalty as a means of consolidating political control.

a. Patronage Networks and Ethnic Favoritism

Politicians distributed state resources — contracts, scholarships, jobs, and infrastructure — primarily to their ethnic base. This not only secured loyalty but also justified continued support, since followers saw their leaders as defenders of communal interests. The Nigerian saying captures the mindset: “It is our turn to eat.”

b. Electoral Mobilization Through Fear

During elections, elites stir ethnic fears, warning that rival groups would dominate or marginalize others. This emotional manipulation ensures bloc voting and distracts citizens from issues like corruption, poverty, or governance failure. Kenya’s 2007 post-election violence — where thousands died after disputed results between Kikuyu and Luo factions — stands as a grim example.

c. Militarization of Ethnicity

Even during coups or civil wars, elites rely on ethnic solidarity. Armies and militias often recruit from specific tribes to ensure loyalty. In Liberia and Sierra Leone, warlords like Charles Taylor and Foday Sankoh built ethnic militias under the guise of liberation. In Rwanda, the 1994 genocide was orchestrated by elites who weaponized ethnic resentment for political survival.

5. The Alliance Between Colonial Legacies and Elite Manipulation

Colonialism created the ethnic structures; elites gave them political life. The persistence of tribal divisions is thus a partnership between historical inheritance and deliberate exploitation.

Colonialism introduced three enduring distortions:

1. Ethnic Hierarchies: Some groups were privileged and others marginalized.

2. Centralized Power: Control of the state meant control of resources.

3. Weak Institutions: Governance was designed for obedience, not participation.

Post-independence elites inherited these distortions intact. Instead of dismantling them, they adapted them for personal gain. They kept the centralized state — not to serve the people, but to distribute patronage. They maintained colonial boundaries — not for unity, but for control. And they perpetuated ethnic favoritism — not for justice, but for political survival.

The result is a cycle: colonial legacies create fertile ground for ethnic division, and elite manipulation keeps those divisions alive to secure power.

6. The Psychology of Division: Fear, Insecurity, and Belonging

Beyond politics, there is a human dimension. In many African societies, citizens have more faith in their ethnic networks than in national institutions. The tribe offers protection, jobs, and belonging in a world where the state often fails to deliver.

When a government consistently favors one region or group, others retreat into ethnic solidarity. The logic is simple: “If they are looking after their own, we must do the same.” This defensive posture deepens mistrust, allowing elites to exploit fear indefinitely.

Ethnic division thus becomes self-reinforcing. Citizens, fearing exclusion, demand representation through their own elites — who then use that very representation to maintain their power. It is a tragic loop of insecurity and manipulation.

7. Counterexamples and Hope: Breaking the Cycle

Despite the persistence of tribal politics, some African nations have made strides toward mitigating its impact.

• Tanzania under Julius Nyerere pursued deliberate nation-building through the promotion of Kiswahili as a national language and a strong emphasis on ujamaa (African socialism). Ethnic tensions were minimized through equitable policies and civic education.

• Rwanda, after the 1994 genocide, rebuilt national identity around the principle of “Rwandanness,” banning ethnic identification in public discourse. While controversial, it has reduced overt ethnic polarization.

• Botswana maintained stability by ensuring inclusive governance and equitable development, making ethnic identity less politically relevant.

These examples show that while colonialism planted the seed of division, good leadership and just institutions can uproot it.

8. The Way Forward: From Tribal Politics to Civic Nationhood

Breaking the alliance between colonial legacies and elite manipulation requires both structural reform and moral renewal:

1. Institutional Neutrality: Strong, independent institutions — especially the judiciary and electoral commissions — can prevent ethnic bias in governance.

2. Civic Education: Schools and media must emphasize shared history and interdependence, replacing fear with empathy.

3. Economic Inclusion: Fair resource distribution reduces the temptation of ethnic patronage.

4. Leadership Accountability: Citizens must reject leaders who weaponize ethnicity and demand performance-based politics.

5. Cultural Integration: Encouraging inter-ethnic dialogue, urban integration, and shared cultural festivals can humanize “the other.”

The Twin Chains of History and Power

Tribal divisions in Africa are not merely colonial ghosts nor purely postcolonial manipulations — they are both. Colonialism created the cracks, but Africa’s political elites have kept widening them for gain. The result is a continent rich in diversity but poor in unity.

Yet history does not have to define destiny. If colonialism divided Africans for exploitation, then the next era must unite them for transformation. That will require a new generation of leaders — and citizens — who see beyond tribe, beyond manipulation, and toward a shared national purpose.

As an African proverb reminds us: “When there is no enemy within, the enemies outside cannot harm you.” The day Africa overcomes its internal divisions, it will no longer be ruled by the ghosts of its past or the greed of its elites — but by the collective spirit of its people.